Mushonga wenhomba

Wedzera zvikochekero
Kubva Wikipedia

Mushonga wenhomba mushonga unogadzirirwa kupa muviri simba rekuzvidzivirira kubva kuchirwere chinotapuriranwa chaunenge wakanangana nacho. Mushonga wenhomba kazhinji unenge une agent inofanana neutachiwana hwunokonzera chirwere. Agent iyi inogadzirwa kubva pautachiwana hwakaurawa kana kushaiswa simba, uturu hwaho, kana rimwe remapuroteni ahwo epamusoro. Agent iyi inomutsa masoja emuviri ekuzvidzivirira kuti aione agent iyi semuvengi, roiparadza, uye nekuzoramba mune ramangwana richiziva nokuparadza utachiwana hwose hwakafanana nahwo. Kupa munhu mushonga wenhomba chirwere kunonzi kudzivirira.Kupa munhu mushonga wenhomba chirwere kunonzi kudzivirira. Kubaya nhomba ndiyo nzira yepamusoro yekudzivisa zvirwere zvinotapuriranwa;[1]. Zvirongwa zvekubaya nhomba zvirwere ndizvo zvakanyanyobatsira kupedza chirwere chechibhokisi nezvimwe zvirwere zvakafanana nemhetamakumbo, gwirikwiti, neruomesashaya. Mishonga yenhomba yakataridza kuva nesimba inosanganisira wekudzivirira influenza,[2] wekudzivirira HPV,[3] newekudzivirira chibhokisi.[4] Shoko rekuti vaccine (mushonga wenhomba) nerokuti vaccination (kubaiwa jekiseni renhomba) anobva pashoko rekuti Variole vaccinae (chibhokisi chinobata mombe), iro rakavambwa na Edward Jenner kutsanangura chirwere che “cowpox”.

Simba Razvo[chinjirudza | chinjirudza mabviro]

Mishonga yenhonmba inoshanda zvakachengeteka pakurwisa uye nekupedza zvirwere zvinotapuriranwa. [5][6][7][8] Asi, pane zvimwe zvinorwisa kubudirira kwayo.[9] Kubudirira kwemushonga wenhomba kwakatsamira pazvinhu zvakawanda:

  • icho chirwere pachacho (mishonga yekudzivirira inoshanda zviri nane pane zvimwe zvirwerekudarika zvainoita pane zvimwe)
  • mhando yemushonga wenhomba wacho (mimwe mishonga yekudzivirira inoshanda chete kana kuti inonyatsobudirira pane dzimwe mhando dzechirwere) [10]
  • kutevedzerwa kana kusatevedzera kwemashandisirwe akatarwa emushonga wenhomba wacho.
  • kusiyana kwekudavira kwemiviri yavanhu kumushonga; vamwe vanhu miviri yavo hainyatsodavira zvakanaka kune mimwe mishonga yenhomba.
  • zvinhu zvakasiyana-siyana zvakaita seurudzi, zera, kana ma genes.
  • Kana munhu akabaiwa jekiseni rekudzivirira chirwere akabatwa nechirwere chaakabairwa mushonga wenhomba (breakthrough infection), chirwere chacho chinotarisirwa kunge chiine simba shoma pane zvachingaita pavanhu vasina kubaiwa mushonga wenhomba.[11]

Zvinotevera zvinofanira kukosheswa kuitira kuti chirongwa chekubaya mishonga yekudzivirira chibudirire:[12]

1. kugadzirwa zvakanaka kwehurongwa kunenge kuchitarisirwa kubudirira kwechirongwa chekubaya vanhu kudzivirira chirwere munguva  refu kana yakareba zvepakati nepakati inezenge ichitevera.

2. kugaroongororwa kwechirwere chacho.

3. kuramba muchibaya vanhu mushonga wenhomba, kunyangwe chirwere pachinenge chotaridzika sechapera.

Mishonga yenhomba yakabudirira kupedza chirwere chechibhokisi, chinova chimwe chezvirwere zvainonyanyopararira pamwe nekuuraya vanhu.[13] Zvimwe zvirwere zvakaita se rubella, mhetamakumbo,gwirikwiti, mahumunya, chibhokisi, typhoid zvava zvishoma kudarika zvazvaiva makore zana apfuura. Kana vanhu vakawanda vakabaiwa majekiseni enhomba, zvinoomera zvirwere kunyuka kana kupararira. Chimiro chakadai chinodaidzwa nezita rechirungu rekuti "herd immunity". Mishonga yenhomba inobatsira kumisa hutachiwana kubva kuzvisimbisa kuti husarapike nemishonga inouraya hutachiwana. Semuenzaniso, kuderedzwa kwechirwere chemabayo anokonzerwa nehutachiwana hwe Streptococcus pneumoniae, zvirongwa zvekubaya mishonga yekudzivirira zvirwere zvakaderedza kupararira kwezvirwere zvinesimba rekuramba kurapwa ne penicillin nemimwe mishonga inouraya hutachiwana[14]. Mushonga wekudzivirira gwirikwiti unofungidzirwa kuti unoponesa vanhu vanosvika miriyoni imwe chete gore negore. [15]

Zviratidzo nezvirwadzo zvisina kutarisirwa pakubaiwa nemushonga.[chinjirudza | chinjirudza mabviro]

Kubayiwa mishonga yekudzivirira zvirwere pazera diki hazvina njodzi kazhinji kacho. [16]Kana zviripo zvainokonzera zvisina kutarisirwa, zvinenge zviri hazvo zvisina simba rakawanda.[17] Izvi zvinosanganisira kunzwa kutsva kwakanyanyisa, marwadzo pakapoteredza panenge pabaiwa jekiseni pacho, nekurwadza kwemarunda.[17] Pamusoro pazvo vamwe vanhu miviri yavo inogona kutadza kuwiririrana nezvimwe zvishandiswa zvinogadziriswa mishonga yenhomba.[18] Kubuda zvisina kutarisirwa kwekubaiwa kwemishonga hakuwanzowanikwa zvako.[16]

Marudzi[chinjirudza | chinjirudza mabviro]

Mishonga yenhomba inogadzirwa nehutachiwana hwakaurawa kana kushaiswa simba kana kuti nezvidimbu zvakashambidzwa zvinobva pahwuri. Kune mhando dzakawanda dzinishandiswa dzemishonga yenhomba.[19]

Waka-shaiswa simba[chinjirudza | chinjirudza mabviro]

Mimwe mishonga yenhomba inogadzirwa neutachiwana hwakashaiswa simba nekuuruawa ne mishonga, kupisa kana kupiswa nemirazvo ye radiation.[20] Mienzaniso inosanganisira mishonga yenhomba inodzivirira kubva kune mhetamakumbo, hepatitis a, maria nefuruwenza.[21]

Yakapomhodzwa uturu[chinjirudza | chinjirudza mabviro]

Mimwe mishonga yenhomba inogadzirwa neutachiwana upenyu hwakapomhodzwa uturu. Izvi zvinomutsa masoja emuviri anogara kwenguva yakareba, asi hazvishande zvakachengetedzeka muvanhu vasina immune system [masoja emuviri] yakasimba.

Uturu wakapombodzwa hunomutsa masoja emuviri se antigen[chinjirudza | chinjirudza mabviro]

Mishonga yenhomba yakabviswa uturu inogadzirwa nemisanganiswa yakabviswa uturu hunokonzera urwere kwete utachiwana hwacho.[22]

Chidimbu[chinjirudza | chinjirudza mabviro]

Mishonga wenhomba yerudzi urwu inoshandisa chidimbu chehutachiwana kugadzira simba remasoja emuviri rekudzivirira muviri.

Yakabatanidzwa nezvidimbu zvemimwe[chinjirudza | chinjirudza mabviro]

Kune umwe utachiwana makanda ekunze erudzi rwe polysaccharide awo ane simba shoma rekumutsa masoja kurwisana nehutachiwana. Masoja ekudzivirira muviri anobatanidza makanda ekunze ezvivakamuviri kuti akwanise kuona polysaccharide racho sechivakamuviri chehutachiwana hunomutsa simba rekurwisa chirwere.

Zvichiri kutsvagurudzwa[chinjirudza | chinjirudza mabviro]

Pane mishonga yenhomba mizhinji ichiri kugadzirwa mimwe ichitoshandiswa.

Mishonga yenhomba mizhinji inogadzirwa neutachiwana hwakashaiswa simba kana kuti hwakapomhodzwa uturu. Mishonga yenhomba yakaita zvekugadzirwa inogadzirwa nezvidimbu zvezvigadziriso kana kuti zvizere.

Simba remaantibodies [mapuroteni kana masoja emuviri] pakubata utachiwana.  [chinjirudza | chinjirudza mabviro]

Mishonga yenhomba inogona kuva monovalent kana multivalent. Kana uri monovalent zvinoreva kuti wakagadzirirwa kurwisa chidimbu chimwe chete cheutachiwana kana kuti mhando imwe chete yeutachiwana.[23] Kana uri multivalent zvinoreva kuti wakagadzirirwa kudzivirira zvidimbu zviviri zvichikwira zvakasiyana zveutachiwana humwechete kana kuti kurwisana nemhando mbiri zvichikwira zveutachiwana.[24]

Heterotypic[chinjirudza | chinjirudza mabviro]

Kune mishonga yenhomba inoshandisa utachiwana hwakabva pane zvimwe zvipuka zvisingakonzeri chirwere kana kuti zvinokonzera chirwere chisina simba muchisikwa chiri kurapwa chacho.

Kuvaka simba rekurwisa chirwere[chinjirudza | chinjirudza mabviro]

Masoja emuviri anoona nekurangarira agent yemishonga yekudzivirira sezvinhu zvisakatenderwa mumuviri oiparadza nekuikirema. Kana muviri ukazosanganazve ne agent ine simba rakapamhidzirwa, unoirangarira wobva watogadzirira kurwisana nayo nenzira dzinoti:

  1. kuinyungudutsa isati yapinda mukatikati/mumacells emuviri;
  2. kuona zvikamu zvemukatikati memuviri zvapindwa neutachiwana wozviparadza utachiwana huwasi hwapararira.

Zvinomutsa simba rekurwisa chirwere nezvinodzivirira kupera simba redziviriro[chinjirudza | chinjirudza mabviro]

Mishonga yenhomba kazhinji inogadzirwa nechimutsasimbarekurwisa chimwe kana zviviri , izvo zvinopa masoja emuviri kushanda  nesimba uye nekukasira. Mishonga yenhomba inokwanisawo kunge yakaiswa mishonga yekuichengetedza inodzivirira kuti isakanganiswa neumwe utachiwana.

Nhevedzano yeurongwa[chinjirudza | chinjirudza mabviro]

Kuitira kuti vadziviririke zvakakwana kuzvirwere, zvinokurudzirwa kuti vana vapiwe mishonga yenhomba pavanongoonekwa kuti miviri yavo yava nemasoja akasimba zvakakwana zvokuti akwanise kugamuchira mishonga yenhomba yakatarwa. Mamwe majekiseni ekusimbaradza masoja emuviri anozodiwa kuti muviri ugova nekudziviririka kwakazara. Izvi ndizvo zvakakonzera kuvambwa kwenhevedzano dzemhando yepamusoro dzekubaiwa kwemajikesi emishonga yenhomba. Mishonga mizhinji yenhomba inokurudzirwa pane mamwe mazera kana kuti kuramba munhu achingoibaiwa kweupenyu hwose. Semuenzaniso, mishonga yekudzivirira gwirikwiti, ruomesashaya, furuwenza, nemabayo. Mishonga inokurudzirwa yekudzivirira zvirwere muvanhu vabva zera inowanzonangana nechirwere chemabayo ne furuwenza.

Nhoroondo[chinjirudza | chinjirudza mabviro]

Kare kusati kwawanikwa nzira yekudzivirira kuchishandiswa zvikamu zvakatorwa pa cowpox, smallpox yaidzivirirwa nekubaiwa maune jekiseni rineutachiwana hwechibhokisi. Umbowo hwemaitiro awa hwakatanga kuonekwa kunyika yeChina mu10th Century.[25] Mumakore ekupedzisira ekuma 1760, Edward Jenner akaona kuti vanhu vaishanda nemombe dzemukaka vaisabatwa nechirwere chesmallpox nokuti vakanga vatobatwa kare necowpox. Muna 1796, Jenner akatorwa urwa paruoko hwemukami wemukaka wemombe uyo akanga aine chirwere che cowpox, akahubayira muruoko hwemwanakomana aiva nemakore masere ekuberekwa, uyo akabva adzivirirwa kubva kuchirwere che smallpox mukati memavhiki matanhatu, akasazobatwazve nacho.[26][27] Jenner akaramba achitatamura zvidzidzo zvake zvemushonga uyu kusvika mugore ra 1798 aburitsa mashoko ekuti mushonga wake waknga wakakodzera kushandiswa muvana vadiki zvese nemuvanhu vakuru zvisina njodzi. Rudzi rwakatevera remishonga yekudzivirira zvirwere rakazoburitswa mumakore ana 1880 na Louis Pasteur. Makore e20th century, akauya nekuburitswa kwemishonga mizhinji yekudzivirira zvirwere inosanganisira yekuparadza chipembwe, gwirikwiti, mahumunya ne rubella. Budiriro huru yakava yekugadzirwa kwemushonga wekupedza mhetamakumbo mumakore ana 1950 nekupedzwa kwe smallpox mumakore ekuma 1960 nema 1970. Maurice Hilleman ndiye munhu akanyanyokurumbira mukugadzira mishonga yekudzivirira zvirwere mu 20th century. Kugadzirirwa kuzhinji kwemishonga yenhomba kusvika nanhasi kwaitsigirwa nemari inobva kudzihurumende, mayunivhesiti, nemasangano anobatsira asina kutarisira kuita mari nazvo.[28] Mishonga mizhinji iyi nokudaro yakachipa zvikuru huye yakabatsira muhutano hweveruzhinji.[29] Mumakore ane makumi akati kuti adarika, uhwandu hwemishonga yenhomba hwakakwira zvakanyanya. [30] Pamusoro pazvo, mishonga yekudzivirira mhuka kuzvirwere inoshandiswa kudzidzivirira kuzvirwere pamwe nekudzivirira kuti dzisazviparadzire kuvanhu.[31]

MaPatents[chinjirudza | chinjirudza mabviro]

Kubatira rupawo pakugadzirwa kwemishonga yekudzivirira zvirwere dzimwe nguva kunopingaidza mabasa ekugadzirwa kwemishonga iyi mitsva. Nokuda kwekusasimba kwemitemo yekubatira rupawo, mvumo yerupawo nguva zhinji inochengetedzwa nekubatira rupawo rwematanho ekugadzirwa kwemishonga pamwe nekuchengetedza zvakavanzika zvemagidzirirwe acho.[32] Vesangano reWorld Health Organisation vanoti chimhingamupini chikuru pakugadzirwa kwemishonga yenhomba munyika dzichiri kusimukira kuwanda kwemari inodiwa uye kudhura kwe zvivakwa pamwe nevashandi vane ruzivo,zvinova zvinhu zvinodiwa kuti mushonga ukwanise kuzopinda pamusika weruzhinji.

Nzira dzekufambisa mishonga[chinjirudza | chinjirudza mabviro]

The development of new delivery systems raises the hope of vaccines that are safer and more efficient to deliver and administer. Kugadzirwa kwenzira dzitsva dzekufambisa mishonga kunopa tariro yekuwanikwa zviri nyore kwemishonga yenhomba isina njodzi uye iri nyore kufambisa nekuibaya vanhu. Pane mushonga wekudzivirira uchiri kuzamiwa pamhuka uyo usinei nekushandisa jekiseni.[33][34][35] Kachidimbu kakaenzana nechitambi chetsamba kakafanana nebhandeji kanotakura zvidimbu zvidiki zvisingaonekwi zvinosvika makumi maviri ezvuru (20 000) pa square cm yoga yoga.[36]

Mafambiro[chinjirudza | chinjirudza mabviro]

Kugadzirwa kwemishonga yenhomba kwakafamba nenzira dzakawanda dzinoti:[37]

  • Kubva kare kusvika makore mashoma achangopfuura, nhomba zhinji dzaiva dzakanangana nevacheche pamwe nevana vadiki asi nekufamba kwenguva kwava kugadzirwawo yakanangana nevana vachangobva zera pamwe chete nevanhu vakuru.[37][38]
  • Mishonga yenhomba yakasanganiswa iri kuita ichiwanda.[37]
  • Nzira dzitsva dzekupa nadzo mishonga yenhomba dziri kuwanikwa
  • Mishonga yenhomba iri kushandiswa kumutsa simba remuviri rekurwisana nezvirwere rekuzvarwa naro, pamwe chete nerekugadzirira zvichienderana nekufamba kwenguva.[37]
  • Nzira dzekugadzira mishonga yenhomba ingabatsira kurapa zvirwere zvinotora nguva refu dzichiri kutsvagwa.[37]
  • Mishonga yenhomba iri kuramba ichigadzirwa inobatsira kudzivirira kurwiswa nematororo anorwisa achishandisa mishonga inouraya.[37]
  • Mascientists ava kuzama kugadzira mishonga yenhomba yekugadzirira makanda makanda ekunze ehutachiwana patsva. Izvi zvichabatsira kutadzisa zvirwere kuumba simba rekukurira mishonga yenhomba.[39]

References[chinjirudza | chinjirudza mabviro]

  1. ↑ §  United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2011). A CDC framework for preventing infectious diseases. Archived 2017-08-29 at the Wayback MachineAccessed 11 September 2012. "Vaccines are our most effective and cost-saving tools for disease prevention, preventing untold suffering and saving tens of thousands of lives and billions of dollars in healthcare costs each year." §  American Medical Association (2000). Vaccines and infectious diseases: putting risk into perspective. Archived 2015-02-05 at the Wayback Machine Accessed 11 September 2012. "Vaccines are the most effective public health tool ever created." §  Public Health Agency of Canada. Vaccine-preventable diseases. Archived 2015-03-13 at the Wayback Machine Accessed 11 September 2012. "Vaccines still provide the most effective, longest-lasting method of preventing infectious diseases in all age groups." §  United States National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID). NIAID Biodefense Research Agenda for Category B and C Priority Pathogens. Archived2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine Accessed 11 September 2012. "Vaccines are the most effective method of protecting the public against infectious diseases."
  2. ↑ Fiore AE, Bridges CB, Cox NJ (2009). Seasonal influenza vaccines. Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. Current Topics in Microbiology and Immunology. 333. pp. 43–82. doi:10.1007/978-3-540-92165-3_3. ISBN 978-3-540-92164-6. PMID 19768400.
  3. ↑ Chang Y, Brewer NT, Rinas AC, Schmitt K, Smith JS (July 2009). "Evaluating the impact of human papillomavirus vaccines". Vaccine. 27 (32): 4355–62. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2009.03.008. PMID 19515467.
  4. ↑ Liesegang TJ (August 2009). "Varicella zoster virus vaccines: effective, but concerns linger". Canadian Journal of Ophthalmology. 44 (4): 379–84. doi:10.3129/i09-126. PMID 19606157.
  5. ↑ Orenstein WA, Bernier RH, Dondero TJ, Hinman AR, Marks JS, Bart KJ, Sirotkin B (1985). "Field evaluation of vaccine efficacy". Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 63 (6): 1055–68. PMC 2536484. PMID 3879673.
  6. ↑ Jan 11, Hub staff report / Published; 2017 (2017-01-11). "The science is clear: Vaccines are safe, effective, and do not cause autism". The Hub. Retrieved 2019-04-16.
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  10. ↑ Schlegel M, Osterwalder JJ, Galeazzi RL, Vernazza PL (August 1999). "Comparative efficacy of three mumps vaccines during disease outbreak in Eastern Switzerland: cohort study". BMJ. 319 (7206): 352. doi:10.1136/bmj.319.7206.352. PMC 32261. PMID 10435956.
  11. ↑ Préziosi MP, Halloran ME (September 2003). "Effects of pertussis vaccination on disease: vaccine efficacy in reducing clinical severity". Clinical Infectious Diseases. 37 (6): 772–9. doi:10.1086/377270. PMID 12955637.
  12. ↑ Miller, E.; Beverley, P. C. L.; Salisbury, D. M. (2002-07-01). "Vaccine programmes and policies". British Medical Bulletin. 62 (1): 201–211. doi:10.1093/bmb/62.1.201. ISSN 0007-1420. PMID 12176861.
  13. ↑ "WHO | Smallpox". WHO. World Health Organization. Retrieved 2019-04-16.
  14. ↑ "19 July 2017 Vaccines promoted as key to stamping out drug-resistant microbes"Immunization can stop resistant infections before they get started, say scientists from industry and academia."". Archived from the original on July 22, 2017.
  15. ↑ Sullivan P (2005-04-13). "Maurice R. Hilleman dies; created vaccines". Wash. Post. Archived from the original on 2012-10-20. Retrieved 2014-01-09.
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 Jump up to:a b c d Maglione MA, Das L, Raaen L, Smith A, Chari R, Newberry S, Shanman R, Perry T, Goetz MB, Gidengil C (August 2014). "Safety of vaccines used for routine immunization of U.S. children: a systematic review". Pediatrics. 134 (2): 325–37. doi:10.1542/peds.2014-1079. PMID 25086160.
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 "Possible Side-effects from Vaccines". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. 2018-07-12. Archived from the original on 17 March 2017. Retrieved 24 February 2014.
  18. ↑ "Seasonal Flu Shot – Seasonal Influenza (Flu)". CDC. 2018-10-02. Archived from the original on 2015-10-01. Retrieved 2017-09-17
  19. ↑ "Vaccine Types". National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. 2012-04-03. Archived from the original on 2015-09-05. Retrieved 2015-01-27.
  20. ↑ "Types of Vaccines". Archived from the original on 2017-07-29. Retrieved October 19,2017.
  21. ↑ "Different Types of Vaccines | History of Vaccines". www.historyofvaccines.org. Retrieved 2019-06-14.
  22. ↑ "Different Types of Vaccines | History of Vaccines". www.historyofvaccines.org. Retrieved 2019-05-03.
  23. ↑ "Monovalent" at Dorland's Medical Dictionary
  24. ↑ Polyvalent vaccine at Dorlands Medical Dictionary Archived March 7, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
  25. ↑ Needham, Joseph. (2000). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 6, Biology and Biological Technology, Part 6, Medicine. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p.154
  26. ↑ Stern AM, Markel H (2005). "The history of vaccines and immunization: familiar patterns, unew challenges". Health Affairs. 24 (3): 611–21. doi:10.1377/hlthaff.24.3.611. PMID 15886151.
  27. ↑ Dunn PM (January 1996). "Dr Edward Jenner (1749-1823) of Berkeley, and vaccination against smallpox" (PDF). Archives of Disease in Childhood: Fetal and Neonatal Edition. 74 (1): F77-8. doi:10.1136/fn.74.1.F77. PMC 2528332. PMID 8653442. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-08.
  28. ↑ Olesen OF, Lonnroth A, Mulligan B (January 2009). "Human vaccine research in the European Union". Vaccine. 27 (5): 640–5. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2008.11.064. PMID 19059446.
  29. ↑ Jit M, Newall AT, Beutels P (April 2013). "Key issues for estimating the impact and cost-effectiveness of seasonal influenza vaccination strategies". Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics. 9 (4): 834–40. doi:10.4161/hv.23637. PMC 3903903. PMID 23357859.
  30. ↑ Newall AT, Reyes JF, Wood JG, McIntyre P, Menzies R, Beutels P (February 2014). "Economic evaluations of implemented vaccination programmes: key methodological challenges in retrospective analyses". Vaccine. 32 (7): 759–65. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2013.11.067. PMID 24295806.
  31. ↑ Patel JR, Heldens JG (March 2009). "Immunoprophylaxis against important virus disease of horses, farm animals and birds". Vaccine. 27 (12): 1797–1810. doi:10.1016/j.vaccine.2008.12.063. PMID 19402200.
  32. ↑ Hardman Reis T (2006). "The role of intellectual property in the global challenge for immunization". J World Intellect Prop. 9 (4): 413–25. doi:10.1111/j.1422-2213.2006.00284.x.
  33. ↑ WHO to trial Nanopatch needle-free delivery system| ABC News, 16 Sep 2014| "Needle-free polio vaccine a 'game-changer'". 2014-09-16. Archived from the original on 2015-04-02. Retrieved 2015-09-15.
  34. ↑ "Australian scientists develop 'needle-free' vaccination". The Sydney Morning Herald. 18 August 2013. Archived from the original on 25 September 2015.
  35. ↑ "Vaxxas raises $25m to take Brisbane's Nanopatch global". Business Review Weekly. 2015-02-10. Archived from the original on 2015-03-16. Retrieved 2015-03-05.
  36. ↑ "Australian scientists develop 'needle-free' vaccination". The Hindu. Chennai, India. 28 September 2011. Archived from the original on 1 January 2014.
  37. ↑ 37.0 37.1 37.2 37.3 37.4 37.5 Plotkin SA (April 2005). "Vaccines: past, present and future". Nature Medicine. 11 (4 Suppl): S5-11. doi:10.1038/nm1209. PMC 7095920. PMID 15812490.
  38. ↑ Carlson B (2008). "Adults now drive growth of vaccine market". Gen. Eng. Biotechnol. News. 28 (11). pp. 22–3. Archived from the original on 2014-01-10.
  39. ↑ Staff (28 March 2013). "Safer vaccine created without virus". The Japan Times. Agence France-Presse – Jiji Press. Archived from the original on 30 March 2013. Retrieved 2013-03-28.
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